2. Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 312: “For the war did not begin, as we tend to think, in Poland in 1939. It began in Asia in 1937, if not in 1931, when Japan invaded Manchuria. It began in Africa in 1935, when Mussolini invaded Abyssinia. It began in Western Europe in 1936, when Germany and Italy began helping Franco win the Spanish Civil War. It began in Eastern Europe in April 1939, with the Italian invasion of Albania.” For more on Poland, see Sec. 4.8, 12 of the VOC curriculum. Also see, Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 1-2.

3. William J. Chase, and Vadim A. Staklo, “The Comintern,” in Enemies Within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934-1939 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 10–36, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkr3g.8.

4. Aristotle Kallis, “Transnational Fascism: The Fascist New Order, Violence, and Creative Destruction,” in Fascism without Borders: Transnational Connections and Cooperation between Movements and Regimes in Europe from 1918 to 1945, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper and Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe (New York, New York, Berghahn Books, 2019), 39-64, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvw04hnr.15.

5. Carolyn P. Boyd, “The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship, 1923–1930: The Origins of ‘National Catholicism,’” in Historia Patria: Politics, History, and National Identity in Spain, 1875-1975, 165–93 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv173f1nm.11.

6. Shlomo Ben-Ami, “The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment,” Journal of Contemporary History 12, no. 1 (1977): 65–84, http://www.jstor.org/stable/260237.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Stanley Payne, The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union and Communism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 11.

10. Ibid.

11. Mary Vincent, Spain, 1833-2002 : People and State (Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2007), 120, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=e000xna&AN=222377&site=ehost-live.

12. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 13-15.

13. See Burnett Bolloten and George Esenwein, “The Brewing Upheaval,” In The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution  (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 3-20, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469624471_bolloten.11.

14. Julián Casanova, “Republic, Civil War and Dictatorship: The Peculiarities of Spanish History,” Journal of Contemporary History 52, no. 1 (2017): 153, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416519.. Julián Casanova, “Republic, Civil War and Dictatorship: The Peculiarities of Spanish History,” Journal of Contemporary History 52, no. 1 (2017): 153, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416519.

15. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 56.

16. Vincent, 119.

17. Lisa A. Kirschenbaum, “The Russian Revolution and Spanish Communists, 1931–5,” Journal of Contemporary History 52, no. 4 (2017): 892–912, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416641.

18. Ibid.

19. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 47-48.

20. Kasper Braskén, “Communist Antifascism and Transnational Fascism: Comparisons, Transfers, Entanglements,” in Fascism without Borders: Transnational Connections and Cooperation between Movements and Regimes in Europe from 1918 to 1945, ed. by Arnd Bauerkämper and Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe (Brooklyn, NY: Berghahn Books, 2019), 288–311, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvw04hnr.15.

21. J. V. Stalin, Sochineniia (Moscow, 1955), 12:263; A. Eden, Facing the Dictators (Boston, 1962), 164. On the changes in Soviet policy, see J. Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security in Europe, 1933–1939 (London, 1984), 27–51, and J. Hochman, The Soviet Union and the Failure of Collective Security, 1934–1938 (Ithaca, 1984), 33–77.

22. Manuel Álvarez Tardío, “The Impact of Political Violence During the Spanish General Election of 1936,” Journal of Contemporary History 48, no. 3 (2013): 463–85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23488418. See also Burnett Bolloten and George Esenwein, The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution, 2nd ed., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 3-20, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469624471_bolloten.11.

23. Bolloten and Esenwein, ibid.

24. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 119-122

25. Maria Thomas, “Political Violence in the Republican Zone of Spain during the Spanish Civil War: Evolving Historiographical Perspectives,” Journal of Contemporary History 52, no. 1 (2017): 140–47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416518.

26. Sebastiaan Faber, “Accounting for Violence, Counting the Dead: The Civil War and Spain’s Political Present,” in Ethics of Life: Contemporary Iberian Debates, ed. by Katarzyna Beilin and William Viestenz (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2016), 295–318.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv167572d.16.

27. Ruth McKay, “The Good Fight and Good History: The Spanish Civil War,” History Workshop Journal, no. 70 (2010): 201, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40981165.

28. Jorge Marco, “Francoist Crimes: Denial and Invisibility, 1936–2016,” Journal of Contemporary History 52, no. 1 (2017): 157–63. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416520.

29. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 105.

30. Julius Ruiz, The “Red Terror” and the Spanish Civil War: Revolutionary Violence in Madrid (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015) 7.

31. Ibid, 12.

32. James Michael Yeoman, “The Spanish Civil War,” The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism, August 8, 2018, 432, https://www.academia.edu/37206766/The_Spanish_Civil_War.

33. Francisco Herreros and Henar Criado, “Pre-Emptive or Arbitrary: Two Forms of Lethal Violence in a Civil War,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 3 (2009): 425 ff, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20684593.

34. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 114.

35. Vincent, 139-40.

36. Julio de la Cueva, “Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War,” Journal of Contemporary History 33, no. 3 (1998): 355, https://www.jstor.org/stable/261121. De la Cueva notes that most atrocities were attributed to the Anarchists, with the communists contributing, 357.

37. Quoted by Schmitt, 281.

38. De la Cueva, 361.

39. Willard C. Frank, Jr., “The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War,” The International History Review 9, no. 3 (August, 1987): 376, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105814.

40. Dorothy Royd Rush, “Winston Churchill and the Spanish Civil War,” Social Sciences 54, no. 2 (Spring, 1979): 87, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41886378.

41. Xabier Irujo, The Bombing of Gernika (Buenos Aires: Ekin, 2021), 23, https://scholarworks.unr.edu/bitstream/handle/11714/7746/9780996781077_gernika.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

42. Ibid, 21.

43. John McCannon, “Soviet Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39: a Reexamination,” Russian History 22, no. 2 (1995): 160, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24657802.

44. Ibid, 166.

45. Bolloten and Esenwein, 600–610.

46. Ibid.

47. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 107-110.

48. Stephane Courtois and Jean Louis Panne, “The Shadow of the NKVD in Spain,” in The Black Book of Communism: Crime, Terror, Repression (Harvard University Press, 1999), 352.

49. Bolloten and Esenwein, 498–515.

50. Yeoman, 437. Stalin’s Great Terror and purges at the same time in the USSR had a long reach, helping to create a civil war within the civil war in Spain.

51. Hans A. Schmitt, review of The Spanish Civil War: Memories and Reassessments, by Valentine Cunningham, John Miller, Paul Preston, and José M. Sanchez, The Sewanee Review 98, no. 2 (1990): 280, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27546214.

52. Yeoman, 441.

53. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, 245.

54. Joan Miró, “Aidez l’Espagne,” 1937, Museo Reina Sofía, https://www.museoreinasofia.es/coleccion/obra/aidez-lespagne-ayudad-espana.

55. Anonymous, “Kion vi faras por eviti tion?,” 1937, Museo Reina Sofía, https://www.museoreinasofia.es/coleccion/obra/kion-vi-faras-eviti-tion-geesperantisoj-tuta-mondo-agu-energie-kontrau-internacia.

56. Anonymous, “¡La España democrática te necesita!” 1937, Museo Reina Sofía, https://www.museoreinasofia.es/coleccion/obra/espana-democratica-necesita-alistate-milicias-populares-antifascistas.