2. Lee Edwards and Elizabeth Edwards Spalding, A Brief History of the Cold War (Washington, DC: Regnery History, 2016), 11.

3. Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 23. See also, Ian Johnson, “Sowing the Wind: The First Soviet-German Military Pact and the Origins of WWII,” War on the Rocks, June 7, 2016, https://warontherocks.com/2016/06/sowing-the-wind-the-first-soviet-german-military-pact-and-the-origins-of-world-war-ii/#:~:text=Through%20their%20alliance%2C%20Germany%20gained,World%20War%20I%20order%20failed.

4. Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 2006), pp. 432-437.

5. Ibid, 23-26, 48-50.  The Western allies and the Polish government decided that the Poles should not even mobilize on the eve of the German and then Soviet attack, both to be seen as the victims and to preserve their peacetime economy. See also Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939-1953 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 55.

6. R.C. Raack, “His Question Asked and Answered: Stalin on ‘Whither Poland,’” The Polish Review 55, no. 2 (2010): 195.

7. Ilya Klishin, “’Protecting the Oppressed Ukrainians’: How the Soviet Press Justified the Soviet Invasion of Poland in 1939,” The Insider, September 24, 2022, https://theins.ru/en/opinion/ilya-klishin/255382.

8. Russia denies to this day that the Polish invasion of 1939 was aggressive. See, e.g., Halya Conash, “Russia Calls Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939 ‘A March of Liberation,’” Human Rights in Ukraine, September 20, 2021, https://khpg.org/en/1608809553.

9. Robert Szymczak, “The Vindication of Memory: The Katyn Case in the West, Poland, and Russia, 1952-2008,” The Polish Review 53, no. 4 (2008): 423 ff, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25779772.

10. For more on the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and Katyn Massacre see Sec. 4, Ch. 8 of the VOC Curriculum.

11. Benjamin Fischer, “The Katyn Controversy: Stalin’s Killing Field,” Central Intelligence Agency, May 8, 2007, https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/studies-in-intelligence/archives/vol-43-no-3/stalins-killing-field/.

12. “The Katyn Forest Massacre: Interim Report of the Select Committee to Conduct an Investigation and Study of the Facts, Evidence, and Circumstances of the Katyn Forest Massacre, Persuant to H. Res. 390 and H. Res. 539 (82d Congress): A Resolution to Authorize the Investigation of the Mass Murder of Polish Officers in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk, Russia” (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1952), 4, //babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435006231229&seq=10.

13. “Records Relating to the Katyn Massacre at the National Archives,” National Archives and Records Administration, accessed October 13, 2021, https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign-policy/katyn-massacre.

14. Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, Volume II, 1795 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 334-335.

15. Lavrentiy Beria, “Katyn-decision of massacre,” Wikimedia Foundation, accessed September 23, 2023, https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katyn_-_decision_of_massacre_p1.jpg.

16. Celestine Bohlen, “Russian Files Show Stalin Ordered Massacre of 20,000 Poles in 1940,” The New York Times, October 5, 1992, https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/15/world/russian-files-show-stalin-ordered-massacre-of-20000-poles-in-1940.html.

17. Quoted by Szymczak, 426.

18. Katarzyna Utracka, “The Katyn Massacre – Mechanisms of Genocide,” The Warsaw Institute Review, May 18, 2020, https://warsawinstitute.review/issue-2020/the-katyn-massacre-mechanisms-of-genocide/.

19. Montefiore, 197.

20. Ibid, 333-34.

21. Masha Hamilton, “Gorbachev Documents Soviet Guilt at Katyn,” Los Angeles Times, April 14, 1990, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-04-14-mn-972-story.html.

22. Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 222.

23. Witold Wasilewski, “The Birth and Persistence of the Katyn Lie,” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 45, no. 3 (2013): 674,  https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/cwrint45&i=698&a=YW1lcmljYW4uZWR1.

24. “Modern History Sourcebook: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 1939,” Fordham University, accessed July 13, 2022,  https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1939pact.asp.